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<h1 id="debug-and-display"><a class="header" href="#debug-and-display">Debug and Display</a></h1>
<p>All types which want to be printable must implement the <code>std::fmt</code> formatting trait: <code>std::fmt::Debug</code> or <code>std::fmt::Display</code>.</p>
<p>Automatic implementations are only provided for types such as in the <code>std</code> library. All others have to be manually implemented.</p>
<h2 id="debug"><a class="header" href="#debug">Debug</a></h2>
<p>The implementation of <code>Debug</code> is very straightforward: All types can <code>derive</code> the <code>std::fmt::Debug</code> implementation. This is not true for <code>std::fmt::Display</code> which must be manually implemented.</p>
<p><code>{:?}</code> must be used to print out the type which has implemented the <code>Debug</code> trait.</p>
<pre><pre class="playground"><code class="language-rust edition2021"><span class="boring">#![allow(unused)]
</span><span class="boring">fn main() {
</span>// This structure cannot be printed either with `fmt::Display` or
// with `fmt::Debug`.
struct UnPrintable(i32);
// To make this struct printable with `fmt::Debug`, we can derive the automatic implementations provided by Rust
#[derive(Debug)]
struct DebugPrintable(i32);
<span class="boring">}</span></code></pre></pre>
<ol>
<li>🌟</li>
</ol>
<pre><pre class="playground"><code class="language-rust editable edition2021">
/* Fill in the blanks and Fix the errors */
struct Structure(i32);
fn main() {
// Types in std and Rust have implemented the fmt::Debug trait
println!("__ months in a year.", 12);
println!("Now __ will print!", Structure(3));
}</code></pre></pre>
<ol start="2">
<li>🌟🌟 So <code>fmt::Debug</code> definitely makes one type printable, but sacrifices some elegance. Maybe we can get more elegant by replacing <code>{:?}</code> with something else( but not <code>{}</code> !)</li>
</ol>
<pre><pre class="playground"><code class="language-rust editable edition2021">#[derive(Debug)]
struct Person {
name: String,
age: u8
}
fn main() {
let person = Person { name: "Sunface".to_string(), age: 18 };
/* Make it output:
Person {
name: "Sunface",
age: 18,
}
*/
println!("{:?}", person);
}</code></pre></pre>
<ol start="3">
<li>🌟🌟 We can also manually implement <code>Debug</code> trait for our types</li>
</ol>
<pre><pre class="playground"><code class="language-rust editable edition2021">
#[derive(Debug)]
struct Structure(i32);
#[derive(Debug)]
struct Deep(Structure);
fn main() {
// The problem with `derive` is there is no control over how
// the results look. What if I want this to just show a `7`?
/* Make it print: Now 7 will print! */
println!("Now {:?} will print!", Deep(Structure(7)));
}</code></pre></pre>
<h2 id="display"><a class="header" href="#display">Display</a></h2>
<p>Yeah, <code>Debug</code> is simple and easy to use. But sometimes we want to customize the output appearance of our type. This is where <code>Display</code> really shines.</p>
<p>Unlike <code>Debug</code>, there is no way to derive the implementation of the <code>Display</code> trait, we have to manually implement it.</p>
<p>Another thing to note: the placeholder for <code>Display</code> is <code>{}</code> not <code>{:?}</code>.</p>
<ol start="4">
<li>🌟🌟</li>
</ol>
<pre><pre class="playground"><code class="language-rust editable edition2021">
/* Make it work*/
use std::fmt;
struct Point2D {
x: f64,
y: f64,
}
impl fmt::Display for Point2D {
/* Implement.. */
}
impl fmt::Debug for Point2D {
/* Implement.. */
}
fn main() {
let point = Point2D { x: 3.3, y: 7.2 };
assert_eq!(format!("{}",point), "Display: 3.3 + 7.2i");
assert_eq!(format!("{:?}",point), "Debug: Complex { real: 3.3, imag: 7.2 }");
println!("Success!");
}</code></pre></pre>
<h3 id="-operator"><a class="header" href="#-operator"><code>?</code> operator</a></h3>
<p>Implementing <code>fmt::Display</code> for a structure whose elements must be handled separately is tricky. The problem is each <code>write!</code> generates a <code>fmt::Result</code> which must be handled in the same place.</p>
<p>Fortunately, Rust provides the <code>?</code> operator to help us eliminate some unnecessary codes for dealing with <code>fmt::Result</code>.</p>
<ol start="5">
<li>🌟🌟</li>
</ol>
<pre><pre class="playground"><code class="language-rust editable edition2021">
/* Make it work */
use std::fmt;
struct List(Vec&lt;i32&gt;);
impl fmt::Display for List {
fn fmt(&amp;self, f: &amp;mut fmt::Formatter) -&gt; fmt::Result {
// Extract the value using tuple indexing,
// and create a reference to `vec`.
let vec = &amp;self.0;
write!(f, "[")?;
// Iterate over `v` in `vec` while enumerating the iteration
// count in `count`.
for (count, v) in vec.iter().enumerate() {
// For every element except the first, add a comma.
// Use the ? operator to return on errors.
if count != 0 { write!(f, ", ")?; }
write!(f, "{}", v)?;
}
// Close the opened bracket and return a fmt::Result value.
write!(f, "]")
}
}
fn main() {
let v = List(vec![1, 2, 3]);
assert_eq!(format!("{}",v), "[0: 1, 1: 2, 2: 3]");
println!("Success!");
}</code></pre></pre>
<blockquote>
<p>You can find the solutions <a href="https://github.com/sunface/rust-by-practice/blob/master/solutions/formatted-output/debug-display.md">here</a>(under the solutions path), but only use it when you need it :)</p>
</blockquote>
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<h1 id="formatting"><a class="header" href="#formatting">Formatting</a></h1>
<h2 id="positional-arguments"><a class="header" href="#positional-arguments">Positional arguments</a></h2>
<p>1.🌟🌟</p>
<pre><pre class="playground"><code class="language-rust editable edition2021">/* Fill in the blanks */
fn main() {
println!("{0}, this is {1}. {1}, this is {0}", "Alice", "Bob"); // =&gt; Alice, this is Bob. Bob, this is Alice
assert_eq!(format!("{1}{0}", 1, 2), __);
assert_eq!(format!(__, 1, 2), "2112");
println!("Success!");
}</code></pre></pre>
<h2 id="named-arguments"><a class="header" href="#named-arguments">Named arguments</a></h2>
<p>2.🌟🌟</p>
<pre><pre class="playground"><code class="language-rust editable edition2021">fn main() {
println!("{argument}", argument = "test"); // =&gt; "test"
/* Fill in the blanks */
assert_eq!(format!("{name}{}", 1, __), "21");
assert_eq!(format!(__,a = "a", b = 'b', c = 3 ), "a 3 b");
/* Fix the error */
// Named argument must be placed after other arguments
println!("{abc} {1}", abc = "def", 2);
println!("Success!");
}</code></pre></pre>
<h2 id="padding-with-string"><a class="header" href="#padding-with-string">Padding with string</a></h2>
<p>3.🌟🌟 By default, you can pad string with spaces</p>
<pre><pre class="playground"><code class="language-rust editable edition2021">fn main() {
// The following two are padding with 5 spaces
println!("Hello {:5}!", "x"); // =&gt; "Hello x !"
println!("Hello {:1$}!", "x", 5); // =&gt; "Hello x !"
/* Fill in the blanks */
assert_eq!(format!("Hello __!", 5, "x"), "Hello x !");
assert_eq!(format!("Hello __!", "x", width = 5), "Hello x !");
println!("Success!");
}</code></pre></pre>
<p>4.🌟🌟🌟 Left align, right align, pad with specified characters.</p>
<pre><pre class="playground"><code class="language-rust editable edition2021">fn main() {
// Left align
println!("Hello {:&lt;5}!", "x"); // =&gt; Hello x !
// Right align
assert_eq!(format!("Hello __!", "x"), "Hello x!");
// Center align
assert_eq!(format!("Hello __!", "x"), "Hello x !");
// Left align, pad with '&amp;'
assert_eq!(format!("Hello {:&amp;&lt;5}!", "x"), __);
println!("Success!");
}</code></pre></pre>
<p>5.🌟🌟 You can pad numbers with extra zeros.</p>
<pre><pre class="playground"><code class="language-rust editable edition2021">fn main() {
println!("Hello {:5}!", 5); // =&gt; Hello 5!
println!("Hello {:+}!", 5); // =&gt; Hello +5!
println!("Hello {:05}!", 5); // =&gt; Hello 00005!
println!("Hello {:05}!", -5); // =&gt; Hello -0005!
/* Fill in the blank */
assert!(format!("{number:0&gt;width$}", number=1, width=6) == __);
println!("Success!")
;}</code></pre></pre>
<h2 id="precision"><a class="header" href="#precision">Precision</a></h2>
<p>6.🌟🌟 Floating point precision</p>
<pre><pre class="playground"><code class="language-rust editable edition2021">
/* Fill in the blanks */
fn main() {
let v = 3.1415926;
println!("{:.1$}", v, 4); // same as {:.4} =&gt; 3.1416
assert_eq!(format!("__", v), "3.14");
assert_eq!(format!("__", v), "+3.14");
assert_eq!(format!("__", v), "3");
println!("Success!");
}</code></pre></pre>
<p>7.🌟🌟🌟 String length</p>
<pre><pre class="playground"><code class="language-rust editable edition2021">fn main() {
let s = "Hello, world!";
println!("{0:.5}", s); // =&gt; Hello
assert_eq!(format!("Hello __!", 3, "abcdefg"), "Hello abc!");
println!("Success!");
}</code></pre></pre>
<h2 id="binary-octal-hex"><a class="header" href="#binary-octal-hex">Binary, octal, hex</a></h2>
<ul>
<li>format!("{}", foo) -&gt; "3735928559"</li>
<li>format!("0x{:X}", foo) -&gt; "0xDEADBEEF"</li>
<li>format!("0o{:o}", foo) -&gt; "0o33653337357"</li>
</ul>
<p>8.🌟🌟</p>
<pre><pre class="playground"><code class="language-rust editable edition2021">fn main() {
assert_eq!(format!("__", 27), "0b11011");
assert_eq!(format!("__", 27), "0o33");
assert_eq!(format!("__", 27), "0x1b");
assert_eq!(format!("__", 27), "0x1B");
println!("{:x}!", 27); // Hex with no prefix =&gt; 1b
println!("{:#010b}", 27); // Pad binary with 0, width = 10, =&gt; 0b00011011
println!("Success!");
}</code></pre></pre>
<h2 id="capture-the-environment"><a class="header" href="#capture-the-environment">Capture the environment</a></h2>
<p>9.🌟🌟🌟</p>
<pre><pre class="playground"><code class="language-rust editable edition2021">fn get_person() -&gt; String {
String::from("sunface")
}
fn get_format() -&gt; (usize, usize) {
(4, 1)
}
fn main() {
let person = get_person();
println!("Hello, {person}!");
let (width, precision) = get_format();
let scores = [("sunface", 99.12), ("jack", 60.34)];
/* Make it print:
sunface: 99.1
jack: 60.3
*/
for (name, score) in scores {
println!("{name}: __");
}
}</code></pre></pre>
<h2 id="others"><a class="header" href="#others">Others</a></h2>
<p><strong>Example</strong></p>
<pre><pre class="playground"><code class="language-rust editable edition2021">fn main() {
// Exponent
println!("{:2e}", 1000000000); // =&gt; 1e9
println!("{:2E}", 1000000000); // =&gt; 1E9
// Pointer address
let v= vec![1, 2, 3];
println!("{:p}", v.as_ptr()); // =&gt; 0x600002324050
// Escape
println!("Hello {{}}"); // =&gt; Hello {}
}</code></pre></pre>
<blockquote>
<p>You can find the solutions <a href="https://github.com/sunface/rust-by-practice/blob/master/solutions/formatted-output/formatting.md">here</a>(under the solutions path), but only use it when you need it :)</p>
</blockquote>
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<h1 id="formatted-output"><a class="header" href="#formatted-output">Formatted output</a></h1>
<pre><pre class="playground"><code class="language-rust editable ignore mdbook-runnable edition2021">fn main() {
// In general, the `{}` will be automatically replaced with any
// arguments. These will be stringified.
println!("{} days", 31);
// Without a suffix, 31 becomes an i32. You can change what type 31 is
// by providing a suffix. The number 31i64 for example has the type i64.
// There are various optional patterns this works with. Positional
// arguments can be used.
println!("{0}, this is {1}. {1}, this is {0}", "Alice", "Bob");
// As can named arguments.
println!("{subject} {verb} {object}",
object="the lazy dog",
subject="the quick brown fox",
verb="jumps over");
// Special formatting can be specified after a `:`.
println!("{} of {:b} people know binary, the other half doesn't", 1, 2);
// You can right-align text with a specified width. This will output
// " 1". 5 white spaces and a "1".
println!("{number:&gt;width$}", number=1, width=6);
// You can pad numbers with extra zeroes. This will output "000001".
println!("{number:0&gt;width$}", number=1, width=6);
// Rust even checks to make sure the correct number of arguments are
// used.
println!("My name is {0}, {1} {0}", "Bond");
// FIXME ^ Add the missing argument: "James"
// Create a structure named `Structure` which contains an `i32`.
#[allow(dead_code)]
struct Structure(i32);
// However, custom types such as this structure require more complicated
// handling. This will not work.
println!("This struct `{}` won't print...", Structure(3));
// FIXME ^ Comment out this line.
// For Rust 1.58 and above, you can directly capture the argument from
// surrounding variable. Just like the above, this will output
// " 1". 5 white spaces and a "1".
let number: f64 = 1.0;
let width: usize = 6;
println!("{number:&gt;width$}");
}</code></pre></pre>
<p>[<code>std::fmt</code>][fmt] contains many [<code>traits</code>][traits] which govern the display
of text. The base form of two important ones are listed below:</p>
<ul>
<li><code>fmt::Debug</code>: Uses the <code>{:?}</code> marker. Format text for debugging purposes.</li>
<li><code>fmt::Display</code>: Uses the <code>{}</code> marker. Format text in a more elegant, user
friendly fashion.</li>
</ul>
<p>Here, we used <code>fmt::Display</code> because the std library provides implementations
for these types. To print text for custom types, more steps are required.</p>
<p>Implementing the <code>fmt::Display</code> trait automatically implements the
[<code>ToString</code>] trait which allows us to [convert] the type to [<code>String</code>][string].</p>
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<h1 id="println-and-format"><a class="header" href="#println-and-format">println! and format!</a></h1>
<p>Printing is handled by a series of [<code>macros</code>][macros] defined in [<code>std::fmt</code>][fmt]
Some of which include:</p>
<ul>
<li><code>format!</code>: write formatted text to [<code>String</code>][string]</li>
<li><code>print!</code>: same as <code>format!</code> but the text is printed to the console (io::stdout).</li>
<li><code>println!</code>: same as <code>print!</code> but a newline is appended.</li>
<li><code>eprint!</code>: same as <code>format!</code> but the text is printed to the standard error (io::stderr).</li>
<li><code>eprintln!</code>: same as <code>eprint!</code>but a newline is appended.</li>
</ul>
<p>All parse text in the same fashion. As a plus, Rust checks format correctness at compile time.</p>
<h2 id="format"><a class="header" href="#format"><code>format!</code></a></h2>
<p>1.🌟</p>
<pre><pre class="playground"><code class="language-rust editable edition2021">
fn main() {
let s1 = "hello";
/* Fill in the blank */
let s = format!(__);
assert_eq!(s, "hello, world!");
}</code></pre></pre>
<h2 id="print-println"><a class="header" href="#print-println"><code>print!</code>, <code>println!</code></a></h2>
<p>2.🌟</p>
<pre><pre class="playground"><code class="language-rust editable edition2021">
fn main() {
/* Fill in the blanks to make it print:
Hello world, I am
Sunface!
*/
__("hello world, ");
__("I am");
__("Sunface!");
}</code></pre></pre>
<blockquote>
<p>You can find the solutions <a href="https://github.com/sunface/rust-by-practice/blob/master/solutions/formatted-output/println.md">here</a>(under the solutions path), but only use it when you need it :)</p>
</blockquote>
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